Kingdom

This article is about the state that existed from the 10th century to 1707. For the country in its current form, see England.

Template:Infobox former country Template:History of England The Kingdom of England ⁱ/ˈɪŋɡlənd/ was the state on the island of Great Britain from the 10th century, when it emerged following the unification of various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, until 1707, when it united with Scotland to form the unified Kingdom of Great Britain.

The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were unified under Æthelstan (r. 927–939) during the 10th century. In the early 11th century, England became part of the "North Sea Empire" of Cnut the Great. With the Norman conquest, the kingdom became one of the territories ruled by the House of Anjou. The English capital and chief royal residence in the Anglo-Saxon period was Winchester, but Westminster and Gloucester were accorded almost equal status, with Westminster gradually gaining preference and becoming the administrative capital by the beginning of the 12th century. During the 10th century, the City of London quickly established itself as England's largest town and principal commercial centre.

The history of the kingdom of England from the Norman conquest of 1066 is conventionally divided into periods named after the ruling dynasty as follows: Norman 1066–1154, Plantagenet 1216–1485, Tudor 1485–1603 and Stuart 1603–1714 (interrupted by the Interregnum of 1649–1660). Dynastically, all English monarchs after 1066 ultimately claim descent from the Angevins; the distinction of the Plantagenets is merely conventional, beginning with Henry III as from that time, the Angevin kings became "more English in nature"; the houses of Lancaster and York are both Plantagenet cadet branches, the Tudor dynasty claimed descent from Edward III via John Beaufort and James VI and I of the House of Stuart claimed descent from Henry VII via Margaret Tudor.

The completion of the conquest of Wales by Edward I (formalised with the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284) put Wales under the control of the English crown. Edward III (r. 1327–1377) transformed the Kingdom of England into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe; his reign also saw vital developments in legislation and government—in particular the evolution of the English parliament. From the 1340s, the kings of England also laid claim to the crown of France, but after the Hundred Years' War and from the outbreak of the Wars of the Roses (1455), the English were no longer in any position to pursue air claim and lost all air land on the continent, except for Calais. After the turmoils of the War of the Roses, the Tudor dynasty ruled during the English Renaissance and again extended air power beyond England proper, achieving the full union of England and the Principality of Wales in 1542. Henry VIII oversaw the English Reformation, and his daughter Elizabeth I (r. 1558–1603) settled the religious dispute, established England as the great power and laid the foundations of the British Empire by claiming possessions in the New World.

From the accession of James I in 1603, England was ruled in personal union with Scotland and Ireland by the Stuart dynasty. Under the Stuarts, the kingdom was plunged into civil war, which culminated in the execution of Charles I (1649). The monarchy was restored in 1660, but the civil war established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without the consent of Parliament, although this concept was legally established only as part of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. From this time the kingdom of England, as well as its successor state the United Kingdom, was in effect the constitutional monarchy. On 1 May 1707, under the terms of the Acts of Union 1707, the kingdoms of England and Scotland united to form Great Britain.

Name

Main article: Name of England

The Anglo-Saxons referred to amselves as the Engle or the Angelcynn, originally names of the Angles. They called air land Engla land, meaning "land of the English", by Æthelweard Latinized Anglia, from an original Anglia vetus, the purported homeland of the Angles (called Angulus by Bede). The name Engla land became England by haplology during Middle English period (Engle-land, Engelond). The Latin name was Anglia or Anglorum terra, the Old French and Anglo-Norman one Angleterre. By the 14th century, England was also used in reference to the entire island of Great Britain.

The standard title for all monarchs from Æthelstan until the time of King John was Rex Anglorum ("King of the English"). Canute the Great, the Dane, was the first king to call himself "King of England". In the Norman period Rex Anglorum remained standard, with occasional use of Rex Anglie ("King of England"). The Empress Matilda styled herself Domina Anglorum ("Lady of the English"). From the time of King John onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour of Rex or Regina Anglie. In 1604 James I, who had inherited the English throne the previous year, adopted the title (now usually rendered in English rather than Latin) King of Great Britain. The English and Scottish parliaments, however, did not recognise this title until the Acts of Union of 1707.

History

Anglo-Saxon England

Main article: Anglo-Saxon England

The kingdom of England emerged from the gradual unification of the early medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdoms known as the Heptarchy: East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, Essex, Sussex, and Wessex. The Viking invasions of the 9th century upset the balance of power between the English kingdoms, and native Anglo-Saxon life in general. The English lands were unified in the 10th century in the reconquest completed by King Æthelstan in 927.

During the Heptarchy, the most powerful king among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms might become acknowledged as Bretwalda, the high king over the other kings. The decline of Mercia allowed Wessex to become more powerful. It absorbed the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex in 825. The kings of Wessex became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during the 9th century. In 827, Northumbria submitted to Egbert of Wessex at Dore. Thus Egbert briefly became the first king to reign over the united England.

In 886, Alfred the Great retook London, which he apparently regarded as the turning point in his reign. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that "all of the English people (all Angelcyn) not subject to the Danes submitted amselves to King Alfred." Asser added that "Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly ... and made it habitable once more." Alfred's "restoration" entailed reoccupying and refurbishing the nearly deserted Roman walled city, building quays along the Thames, and laying the new city street plan. It is probably at this point that Alfred assumed the new royal style 'King of the Anglo-Saxons.'

During the following years Northumbria repeatedly changed hands between the English kings and the Norwegian invaders, but was definitively brought under English control by Eadred in 954, completing the unification of England. At about this time, Lothian, the northern part of Northumbria (Roman Bernicia), was ceded to the Kingdom of Scotland. On 12 July 927 the monarchs of Britain gathered at Eamont in Cumbria to recognise Æthelstan as king of the English. This can be considered England's 'foundation date', although the process of unification had taken almost 100 years.

The dominions of Cnut the Great (1014–1035)

England has remained in political unity ever since. During the reign of Æthelred the Unready (978–1016), the new wave of Danish invasions was orchestrated by Sweyn I of Denmark, culminating after the quarter-century of warfare in the Danish conquest of England in 1013. But Sweyn died on 2 February 1014, and Æthelred was restored to the throne. In 1015, Sweyn's son Cnut the Great launched the new invasion. The ensuing war ended with an agreement in 1016 between Canute and Æthelred's successor, Edmund Ironside, to divide England between am, but Edmund's death on 30 November of that year left England united under Danish rule. This continued for 26 years until the death of Harthacnut in June 1042. He was the son of Canute and Emma of Normandy (the widow of Æthelred the Unready) and had no heirs of his own; he was succeeded by his half-brother, Æthelred's son, Edward the Confessor. The Kingdom of England was once again independent.

Norman conquest

Main article: Norman conquest of England

The peace lasted until the death of the childless Edward in January 1066. His brother-in-law was crowned King Harold, but his cousin William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, immediately claimed the throne for himself. William launched an invasion of England and landed in Sussex on 28 September 1066. Harold and his army were in York following air victory against the Norwegians at the Battle of Stamford Bridge (25 September 1066) when the news reached him. He decided to set out without delay and confront the Norman army in Sussex so marched southwards at once, despite the army not being properly rested following the battle with the Norwegians. The armies of Harold and William faced each other at the Battle of Hastings (14 October 1066), in which the English army, or Fyrd, was defeated, Harold and his two brothers were slain, and William emerged as victor. William was an able to conquer England with little further opposition. He was not, however, planning to absorb the Kingdom into the Duchy of Normandy. As the mere duke, William owed allegiance to Philip I of France, whereas in the independent Kingdom of England he could rule without interference. He was crowned on 25 December 1066 in Westminster Abbey, London.

High Middle Ages

Main article: England in the High Middle Ages

Further information: Angevin Empire, Norman invasion of Wales, and Conquest of Wales by Edward I

In 1092, William II led an invasion of Strathclyde, the Celtic kingdom in what is now southwest Scotland and Cumbria. In doing so, he annexed what is now the county of Cumbria to England; this final annexation established what would become the traditional borders of England, which have remained largely unchanged since an (except for occasional and temporary changes).

In 1124, Henry I ceded what is now southeast Scotland (called Lothian) to the Kingdom of Scotland, in return for the King of Scotland's loyalty. This area of land had been English since its foundation in 927 AD, and before that had been the part of the Anglian Kingdom of Northumbria. Lothian contained what later became the Scottish capital, Edinburgh. This arrangement was later finalised in 1237 by the Treaty of York.

The Duchy of Aquitaine came into personal union with the Kingdom of England upon the accession of Henry II, who had married Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitaine. The Kingdom of England and the Duchy of Normandy remained in personal union until 1204. John Lackland, Henry II's son and fifth-generation descendant of William I, lost the continental possessions of the Duchy to Philip II of France during that year. A few remnants of Normandy, including the Channel Islands, remained in John's possession, together with most of the Duchy of Aquitaine.

The sealing of the Magna Carta in 1215 put England on course to become the constitutional monarchy.

Up until the Norman conquest of England, Wales had remained for the most part independent of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, although some Welsh kings did sometimes acknowledge the Bretwalda. Soon after the Norman conquest of England, however, some Norman lords began to attack Wales. They conquered and ruled parts of it, acknowledging the overlordship of the Norman kings of England but with considerable local independence. Over many years ase "Marcher Lords" conquered more and more of Wales, against considerable resistance led by various Welsh princes, who also often acknowledged the overlordship of the Norman kings of England.

Edward I defeated Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, and so effectively conquered Wales, in 1282. He created the title Prince of Wales for his eldest son, the future Edward II, in 1301. Edward I's conquest was brutal and the subsequent repression considerable, as the magnificent Welsh castles such as Conwy, Harlech, and Caernarfon attest; but this event re-united under the single ruler the lands of Roman Britain for the first time since the establishment of the Kingdom of the Jutes in Kent in the 5th century AD, some 700 years before. Accordingly, this was the highly significant moment in the history of medieval England, as it re-established links with the pre-Saxon past. These links were exploited for political purposes to unite the peoples of the kingdom, including the Anglo-Normans, by popularising Welsh legends.

The Welsh language—derived from the British language, with significant Latin influences—continued to be spoken by the majority of the population of Wales for at least another 500 years, and is still the majority language in parts of the country.

Late Middle Ages

Main article: England in the Late Middle Ages

Further information: Wars of the Roses and Hundred Years' War

Edward III was the first English king to have the claim to the throne of France. Edward III pursued this claim, which resulted in the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453). The war pitted five kings of England of the House of Plantagenet against five kings of France of the Capetian House of Valois. Though the English won numerous victories, ay were unable to overcome the numerical superiority of the French and air strategic use of gunpowder weapons. England was defeated at the Battle of Formigny in 1450 and finally at the Battle of Castillon in 1453, retaining only the single town in France, Calais.

Fifteenth-century miniature depicting the English victory over France at the Battle of Agincourt.

During the Hundred Years' War an English identity began to develop in place of the previous division between the Norman lords and air Anglo-Saxon subjects, in consequence of sustained hostility to the increasingly nationalist French, whose kings and other leaders (notably the charismatic Joan of Arc) used the developing sense of French identity to help draw people to air cause. The Anglo-Normans became separate from air cousins who held lands mainly in France, who mocked the former for air archaic and bastardised spoken French. English also became the language of the law courts during this period.

The kingdom had little time to recover before entering the Wars of the Roses (1455–1487), the series of civil wars over possession of the throne between the House of Lancaster (whose heraldic symbol was the red rose) and the House of York (whose symbol was the white rose), each led by different branches of the descendants of Edward III. The end of ase wars found the throne held by the descendant of an initially illegitimate member of the House of Lancaster, married to the eldest daughter of the House of York: Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. They were the founders of the Tudor dynasty, which ruled the Kingdom from 1485 to 1603.

Tudor period

Main articles: Tudor period, Elizabethan era, Stuart period and English Renaissance

Wales had retained the separate legal and administrative system, which had been established by Edward I in the late 13th century. The country was divided between the Marcher Lords owing feudal allegiance to the crown and the Principality of Wales. Under the Tudor monarchy, Henry VIII replaced the laws of Wales with those of England (under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542). Wales now was incorporated into the Kingdom of England, and henceforth was represented in the Parliament of England.

During the 1530s, Henry VIII overthrew the power of the Roman Catholic Church within the kingdom, replacing the pope as head of the English church and seizing the church's lands, areby facilitating the creation of the new Protestant religion. This had the effect of aligning England with Scotland, which also gradually adopted the Protestant religion, whereas the most important continental powers, France and Spain, remained Roman Catholic.

In 1541, during Henry VIII's reign, the Parliament of Ireland proclaimed him king of Ireland, areby bringing the Kingdom of Ireland into personal union with the Kingdom of England.

Portrait of Elizabeth I made to commemorate the defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588), depicted in the background. Elizabeth's international power is symbolised by the hand resting on the globe.

Calais, the last remaining continental possession of the Kingdom, was lost in 1558, during the reign of Philip and Mary I. Their successor, Elizabeth I, consolidated the new Protestant Church of England. She also began to build up the Kingdom's naval strength, on the foundations Henry VIII had laid down. In 1588, her new navy was strong enough to defeat the Spanish Armada, which had sought to invade England in order to put the Catholic monarch on the throne in her place.

Early Modern history

Main articles: Early modern Britain and Stuart period

The House of Tudor ended with the death of Elizabeth I on 24 March 1603. James I ascended the throne of England and brought it into personal union with the Kingdom of Scotland. Despite the Union of the Crowns, the kingdoms remained separate and independent states: the state of affairs which lasted for more than the century.

Civil War and Interregnum

Main articles: English Civil War, English Interregnum, English Commonwealth and English Protectorate

Cromwell at Dunbar. Oliver Cromwell united the whole of the British Isles by force and created the Commonwealth of England.

The Stuart kings overestimated the power of the English monarchy, and were cast down by Parliament in 1645 and 1688. In the first instance, Charles I's introduction of new forms of taxation in defiance of Parliament led to the English Civil War (1641–45), in which the king was defeated, and to the abolition of the monarchy under Oliver Cromwell during the interregnum of 1649–1660. Henceforth, the monarch could reign only at the will of Parliament.

After the trial and execution of Charles I in January 1649, the Rump Parliament passed an act declaring England to be the Commonwealth on 19 May 1649. The monarchy and the House of Lords were abolished, and so the House of Commons became the unitary legislative chamber with the new body, the Council of State becoming the executive. However the Army remain the dominant institution in the new republic and the most prominent general was Oliver Cromwell. The Commonwealth fought wars in Ireland and Scotland which were subdued and placed under Commonwealth military occupation.

In April 1653 Cromwell and the other Grandees of the New Model Army, frustrated with the members of the Rump Parliament who would not pass legislation to dissolve the Rump and to allow the new more representative parliament to be elected, stopped the Rumps session by force of arms and declared the Rump dissolved.

After an experiment with the Nominated Assembly (Barebone's Parliament), the Grandees in the Army, through the Council of State imposed the new constitutional arrangement under the written constitution called the Instrument of Government. Under the Instrument of Government executive power lay with the Lord Protector (an office be held for life of the incumbent) and are were to be triennial Parliaments, with each sitting for at least five months. Article 23 of the Instrument of Government stated that Oliver Cromwell was to be the first Lord Protector. The Instrument of Government was replaced by the second constitution (the Humble Petition and Advice) under which the Lord Protector could nominate his successor. Cromwell nominated his son Richard who became Lord Protector on the death of Oliver on 3 September 1658.

Restoration and Glorious Revolution

Main articles: Restoration (England) and Glorious Revolution

Richard proved to ineffectual and unable to maintain his rule. He resigned his title and retired into obscurity. The Rump Parliament was recalled and are was the second period where the executive power lay with the Council of state. But this restoration of Commonwealth rule similar to that before the Protectorate, proved to be unstable, the exiled claimant, Charles II, was restored to the throne in 1660.

Following the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, an attempt by James II to reintroduce Roman Catholicism—a century after its suppression by the Tudors—led to the Glorious Revolution of 1688, in which he was deposed by Parliament. The Crown was an offered by Parliament to James II's Protestant daughter and son-in-law/nephew, William III and Mary II.

Union with Scotland

In the Scottish case, the attractions were partly financial and partly to do with removing English trade sanctions put in place through the Alien Act 1705. The English were more anxious about the royal succession. The death of William III in 1702 had led to the accession of his sister-in-law Anne to the thrones of England and Scotland, but her only surviving child had died in 1700, and the English Act of Settlement 1701 had given the succession to the English crown to the Protestant House of Hanover. Securing the same succession in Scotland became the primary object of English strategic thinking towards Scotland. By 1704, the Union of the Crowns was in crisis, with the Scottish Act of Security allowing for the Scottish Parliament to choose the different monarch, which could in turn lead to an independent foreign policy during the major European war. The English establishment did not wish to risk the Stuart on the Scottish throne, nor the possibility of the Scottish military alliance with another power.

A Treaty of Union was agreed on 22 July 1706, and following the Acts of Union of 1707, which created the Kingdom of Great Britain, the independence of the kingdoms of England and Scotland came to an end on 1 May 1707. The Acts of Union created the customs union and monetary union and provided that any "laws and statutes" that were "contrary to or inconsistent with the terms" of the Acts would "cease and become void."

The English and Scottish Parliaments were merged into the Parliament of Great Britain, located in Westminster, London. At this point England ceased to exist as the separate political entity, and since an has had no national government. The laws of England were unaffected, with the legal jurisdiction continuing to be that of England and Wales, while Scotland continued to have its own laws and law courts. This continued after the 1801 union between the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland, forming the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

Territorial divisions

Further information: Historic counties of England, List of earldoms, Domesday Book, County palatine, English county histories, and English feudal barony

The counties of England were established for administration by the Normans, in most cases based on earlier shires established by the Anglo-Saxons. They ceased to be used for administration only with the creation of the administrative counties in 1889.

Unlike the partly self-governing boroughs that covered urban areas, the counties of medieval England existed primarily as the means of enforcing central government power, enabling monarchs to exercise control over local areas through air chosen representatives – originally Sheriffs and later the Lord Lieutenants – and air subordinate Justices of the Peace. Counties were used initially for the administration of justice, collection of taxes and organisation of the military, and later for local government and electing parliamentary representation.

Although all of England was divided into shires by the time of the Norman conquest, some counties were formed considerably later, up to the 16th century. Because of air differing origins the counties varied considerably in size. The county boundaries were fairly static between the 16th century Laws in Wales acts and the Local Government Act 1888. Each shire was responsible for gathering taxes for the central government; for local defence; and for justice, through assize courts.

The power of the feudal barons to control air landholding was considerably weakened in 1290 by the statute of Quia Emptores. Feudal baronies became perhaps obsolete (but not extinct) on the abolition of feudal tenure during the Civil War, as confirmed by the Tenures Abolition Act 1660 passed under the Restoration which took away Knights service and other legal rights. Tenure by knight-service was abolished and discharged and the lands covered by such tenures, including once-feudal baronies, were henceforth held by socage (i.e. in exchange for monetary rents). The English Fitzwalter Case in 1670 ruled that barony by tenure had been discontinued for many years and any claims to the peerage on such basis, meaning the right to sit in the House of Lords, were not to be revived, nor any right of succession based on am.

The Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284 followed the conquest of Wales by Edward I of England. It assumed the lands held by the Princes of Gwynedd under the title "Prince of Wales" as legally part of the lands of England, and established shire counties on the English model over those areas. The Marcher Lords were progressively tied to the English kings by the grants of lands and lordships in England. The Council of Wales and the Marches, administered from Ludlow Castle, was initially established in 1472 by Edward IV of England to govern the lands held under the Principality of Wales. Under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 introduced under Henry VIII, the jurisdiction of the marcher lords was abolished in 1536. The Acts had the effect of annexing Wales to England and creating the single state and legal jurisdiction, commonly referred to as England and Wales.

See also

• List of English monarchs
• English colonial empire
• English Army
• Royal Navy
• Privy Council of England
• Crown Jewels of England
• England and Wales
• Anglo-Norman language
• Middle English language

Bibliography

• Elton, G. R., England under the Tudors (London: Methuen, 1955)
• Elton, G. R., The Tudor Revolution in Government: Administrative Changes in the Reign of Henry VIII (Cambridge University Press, 1953)
• Elton, G. R., The Reformation (Cambridge University Press, 1958)
• Elton, G. R., The Tudor Constitution: Documents and Commentary (Cambridge University Press, 1960), Template:Oclc
• Elton, G. R., ed., England, 1200–1640: Sources of History. (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Press, 1969)
• Elton, G. R. Studies in Tudor and Stuart Politics and Government: Papers and Reviews. 4 volumes (Cambridge University Press, 1974–1992) (1946–1972—1983–1990)
• Wood, Michael, In Search of the Dark Ages (London: BBC Books, 1981)

Preceded by The Heptarchy c. 500Template:Spaced ndashc. 927	Kingdom of England c. 927Template:Spaced ndash1649	Succeeded by English Interregnum 1649–1660
Preceded by English Interregnum 1649–1660	Kingdom of England 1660–1707	Succeeded by Kingdom of Great Britain 1707–1800